Hello everyone, below you will find an accidental essay I wrote about Witchcraft Today by Gerald Gardner after having read it and annotating/tabbing a grand total of 104 times - see my book for evidence:
Trigger Warning(s)
Before proceeding I wish to provide two main Trigger Warnings: Racism, and hetero and cis-normativity along with homophobia. These will be discussed in context with quotes from the text and some commentary by me. For these particular content warnings, I think it only fair to also disclose a few of my identities: I am a white, non-binary, AFAB, and bisexual person.
Introduction
There is much debate in Wicca about the origins of the Religion, and who its inventor(s) were; however, there is very little debate around who it was that popularized it and really brought it to the fore - and is one of the reasons we know about and can practice witchcraft and Wicca now in 2025. That man is Gerald Gardner. Gardner is a highly controversial figure in witchcraft nowadays, which I suspect is largely due to the fact that we are all very much products of our time, and he passed away in 1964. Ten years prior to his death, however, he published what would be considered the first book to ever discuss Wicca or Witchcraft non-fictionally in modern times - Witchcraft Today in 1954.
“Gardner’s Writing [...] is not sacred scripture.” (Judy Harrow, pp. 11)
I am on a personal mission to read as many classic books on Witchcraft and Wicca to better understand our history, and where we came from to know better where we are going in the future. Many - if not all - Pagan traditions are living traditions, which means they are changing and growing all the time as we as people grow and learn, and as communities we discover new information and integrate it into our practices. Reading these older books allows me to see where we have come from, in order to better understand our present. And it also helps me, in knowing our present better and how we got here, how to move forward and shape my path and traditions in the way those before me have done.
“...our religion is a living thing, an ongoing co-creation.” (Judy Harrow, pp.10)
I read the 50th anniversary edition of Witchcraft Today from 2004 with additional contributions from Dr. Ronald Hutton (Historian and Professor of Divinity), Judy Harrow (a Wiccan Priestess and author, who passed away in 2014), Wren Walker (one of the co-producers of the now shut-down Witch Vox site), and Tara Nelson (a graduate student). Gardner’s actual text remains unedited and unchanged within the book; however, there are added appendices with articles written by the above contributors. My plan for this post is to explore this text through critical reading - taking into account today's climate along with the context of when and where Gardner was writing, and provide my own perspective on the book and its use today.
Gardner says himself that “discussion and criticism is the only way to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion” (pp. 90) so I think this attempt at discussion and critique is in line with this idea and will add to this body of work.
Themes & Index
Judy Harrow wanted to create an index of themes covered by the text that appeared to be very important to Gardner based ont he frequency with which he brought them up - but she also brought up some newer (at the time) sources for folks to learn more about these topics. I will not recreate the lists here; however, I will provide a list of the indexed themes:
Celts & Druids
Dance
The God
The Goddess
Indigenous Spirituality
Initiation
Shamanism
Spellcraft
The Creation of Wicca
“[Gardner’s] part in the creation of Wicca remains uncertain and deeply controversial [...] but there is no doubt that he was the first publicist and propagator of Wicca.” (Ronald Hutton, pp.164)
“[Gardner] claimed to have met members of a surviving coven of Pagan witches led by a local lady, Dorothy Clutterbuck, and so discovered Wicca. No independent evidence has ever been found that he ever met any such coven - or indeed that one ever existed…” (Ronald Hutton, pp. 162)
“... this [the publication of HIgh Magic’s Aid] is the latest possible date at which that religion might have been developed. The novel was published in 1949, and within a year (at the latest) he was running a Wiccan coven at Bricket Wood with Dafo. In 1950 also, he began to spread word among London occultists of the existence of Wiccans, and in 1951, he commenced a campaign to draw attention to it in the mass media.” (Ronald Hutton, pp. 163)
“There are indeed certain expressions and certain words used which smack of Crowley.” (pp.47)
There is no doubt that Gardner is a controversial figure in the history of Wicca - was he the progenitor of the entire religion? Did he truly find a coven which claimed ancient ties? This is entirely possible considering the number of Victorian societies of the occult which formed, or Druid orders claiming unbroken ancient lineage which was - simply - untrue. Gardner seems to think that Crowley may have been a member, and us in modern day may point to him being a possible founder (or at least an influential figure) of Wicca today - based on certain wordings which Gardner alludes to which “smack of Crowley” (pp. 47). The few times throughout the text Crowley is mentioned leads me to believe that Gardner respected but did not particularly like him (I a few times wrote “tell us how you really feel, Gerald!” in my annotations).
History and Sources
Some of the primary critiques I hear about Gardner’s work is that it contains ‘bad history’ and many things he claims as fact but does not provide sources for in his work. These claims aren’t completely wrong; however, they are missing a lot of nuance that I think is desperately needed when we discuss older books such as this. Gardner was a self-educated man - Hutton, in his contribution to the book - even notes that it is evident in the way that he writes that he was not formally educated. This is clear to me, too, in the way that similar information is rehashed multiple times in confusing ways throughout the text.
Gardner himself, throughout the text notes that much of what he is sharing are his own theories; however, they appear rather infrequently for my own complaint where it is often unclear completely what he is citing from a mentioned text, or what is his own extrapolations. A lot of the history he presents, as well, is taken largely from Dr. Margaret Murray.
“An Anthropologist may draw their own conclusions and advance any theories of their own, but they must make it clear that these are their own conclusion and their own theories and not proven facts; and this is the method I propose to adopt.” (pp.18)
Dr. Margaret Murray was in her time a well-respected Egyptologist, anthropologist, folklorist, and historian. Much of the history which Pagans today sweepingly call ‘bad history’ are primarily her theories around the idea of a witch-cult preserving pre-Christian Witchcraft in secret through hundreds of years. Even Hutton notes in some of his lectures how he regarded her work with respect; however, it is widely known today in historian and folklorist circles that her theories are - largely - unfounded and are no longer considered part of the contemporary canon of history. But what I need to remind us all of at this moment is that, when many of the early Pagan authors were writing, her work was contemporary. Into the 90s many of the authors still repeating her theories and works were not getting them from early books on Witchcraft - such as Witchcraft Today.
Chapter 3: The Witch Beliefs is largely based on Dr. Murray’s work.
Chapter 5: The Little People is a chapter which primarily discusses an entire race of little people in the UK which he posits are the origin of myths of the Fae. I am unsure from whence Gardner pulled his information for this particular section as I have not heard of these particular theories from Dr. Murray; however, I have not personally read much of her work so if you know of where in her work this may come from I really hope you can enlighten in the comments so we can all know where that comes from.
“This, however, is simply my theory; I cannot give any proof of it.” (pp. 65)
“I would like information on the subject - dates and places, please?” (pp. 104-105)
What cracks me up is that Gardner, while frequently not providing names, dates, and places for his sources, asks for them when there is something brought up which speaks ill of witches. While I too would like this from the dissenters, I equally want this information from our author - thankfully, Judy Harrow put in a lot of work for the 50th anniversary edition and created for us a potential list of sources. Many of which, in 2025, are out of print - but many were still in print in 2004. I highly recommend checking out a copy of the 50th anniversary edition for this source list.
Gender & Sexuality
“To form this battery of wills, male and female intelligences are necessary in couples. In practice these are usually husband and wife, but there are younger people who often form attachments which usually end in marriage.” (pp. 29)
While I agree that working in pairs and in ritual can bring different forms of closeness and even intimacy with your working partner, it does not always have to be romantic or sexual closeness and intimacy. This can bring deepened friendships, and connections with community members you will have for life. Many older books mention the need for balance of male and female energies. In my own OBOD studies gendered energies were frequently discussed until such a time that a balance of those energies within the self was shown to be the ideal. As a non-binary person, I felt like it was not useful to myself to be taught gendered energies if the ultimate goal was to come to a balanced harmony of all forms of energy within the self.
I have extensive thoughts on this concept of male vs. female ‘energies’ in witchcraft further to this; however, I can understand that if someone grew up in a very gendered household and a very gendered world with specifically prescribed expectations it could be difficult for them to access all parts of themselves and their energies in circle. This discussion of male vs. female to begin with might prove helpful for them to build that bridge to balance within themselves. In 1954 - when this book was published - a return to ‘traditional gender roles’ after the war was underway where women were leaving the workforce they had been in during the second World War and this reaffirmed these lines between genders and reinforced the gender binary at the time - so it is not surprising to me that in order get a balanced energy within a coven circle, they would need a balance of the ‘two sexes’ (while in 2025 we are still largely ignorant of the numerous intersex conditions in humans).
“The Witches tell me: ‘The law always has been that power must be passed from man to woman, or from woman to man, the only exception being when a mother initiates her daughter or a father initiates his son, because they are part of themselves.’* (The reason is that great love is apt to occur between people who go through the rites together.) They go on to say: ‘The Templars broke this age-old rule and passed the power from man to man: this led to sin and in so doing it brought about their downfall.” (pp.69)
There is a lot to unpack here because it seems to imply that 1) witches have a concept of sin and 2) one of those sins is the potential for homosexuality.
“Witches have methods by which they try to prevent this, but they are not always successful. For this reason, they say, the Goddess has strictly forbidden a man to be initiated or to work with a man, or a woman to be initiated by or to work with a woman [...] and the curse of the Goddess may be on any who break this law.” (pp.75)
Now, I don’t necessarily think I need to voice that I disagree heartily with calling homosexuality, or the potential for it through close spiritual work in same-sex couples, a sin; however, I do not want us to forget this when I discuss with nuance and context of the time in which Gardner is writing.
Criminalization of homosexual acts - specifically between two men - has an incredibly long history in the UK, where Gardner is from and where he was writing when Witchcraft Today was released. From the 1500’s and even up into the 1800’s men could be executed for homosexual acts. From the Buggery Act of 1533, the Offences Against The Person Act of 1828 and 1861, it took until 1967 for homosexual acts between consenting adults in private to be decriminalized in England - Scotland in 1980 and Northern Ireland in 1982. Preventing feelings developing between people of the same sex may have been used as protection for a religious minority and to provide them legitimacy showing the reader that they were ‘civilised’ like the average Christian family in the UK. Same sex marriage was legalized in Canada in my lifetime - I knew I liked women before marriage was even an option - and even more recently than that in the UK and USA.
These concepts of gender and sexuality are things which were very much a product of their time and, in my opinion, an attempt at good publicity for the Witches. When we are in a living tradition norms and values change, and the things we believe about different populations change. In witchcraft circles it’s incredibly common to be working with LGBTQIA+ witches that these ideas of balanced energies have been - in most communities - set aside for progress. As with all things; however, there are still some groups and covens who may work in this way. It is important to be aware of this and to use your own spiritual and moral authority to decide whether a particular coven, group, or tradition is for you.
Racism
Chapter 8: Out of Egypt contains some subtle and not-so-subtle notes of racism and uses outdated and harmful reference to African’s and Black folk (“Negro” pp.93). The chapter opens with some exposition and veneration of ancient Egyptian practices, while trying very hard to separate ancient/classical Egypt from the rest of Africa. This led to me messaging a friend who has a degree in history to ask if, at any time, was Egypt ever considered not to be part of Africa. His response can be summed up essentially as “Nope - it's Racism.” Gardner even goes so far as to insinuate that modern Egyptians have no historical ties to Ancient/Classical Egypt. This turns out to have been a very common tactic by Western (read: white) occultists (and still is in some groups) by which they allowed themselves to study and work with Egyptian myth while being able to separate themselves from the Black or African magical practitioner.
“I feel that the Egyptian Cults were too severe and respectable to go in for the blood practices used by Africans.” (pp.95)
“The essence of magic is usually to raise power, then to use or control it [...] The west Africans use blood, but, again I think they do not have the true secrets.” (pp. 101)
“But a witch friend suggests to me that the use of blood drawn from your own body might be permitted.” (pp. 138)
Gardner, several times, discredits African and Black magical workers due to the use of blood in their rites, but later reveals that a witch friend suggests one could use blood from your own body. He even goes on to discuss how Aleister Crowley would - on occasion - cut his own chest to use his own fresh blood in a working. While Gardner does not favour this idea - he is not so dismissive of it when being discussed or used by white magical practitioners while at the same time saying that Black and African practitioners do not hold “the true secrets” (pp.101). The reason? Racism - plain and clear racism which makes the same act not ‘respectable’ in one group, and fine but not preferred in another.
I feel that I do not have the authority to critique beyond calling out racism with I see it - but if you know of further analysis which has been done on this text from the lens of racism I would be very happy to see it.
Some Interesting Tidbits
One thing that was brought up a few times by contributors was that on October 31, 1979, two powerhouses of Witchcraft books were released - The Spiral Dance by Starhawk (one of the founders of my tradition, Reclaiming) and Drawing Down the Moon by Margot Adler. I have read and used The Spiral Dance a few times in my practice, but I have never read Drawing Down the Moon despite it being such a core “classic” book in the Witchcraft space. Something must have been in the air in 1979 for these two to be released on the same day - Samhain (or Hallowe’en), of course.
“Witches are taught and believe that the power resides within their bodies which they can release in various ways, the simplest being dancing round in a circle, singing or shouting, to induce a frenzy; this power they believe exudes from their bodies, clothes impeding its release [...] It is easy to imagine that a witch who firmly believes that it is essential to be naked could not whip up the final effort to attain the ecstasy without being naked. Another, however, who did not share this belief might, though partially clothes, exert sufficient energy to force power through her face, shoulders, arms and legs, to produce some result; but who can say that she could not have produced twice the power with half the effort had she been in the traditional nakedness?” (pp.20)
This is actually an interesting explanation for the reason for practicing Skyclad (naked) like many Gardnerian Wiccans do - and other traditions in witchcraft. Gardner seems to imply that a witch who does believe that they MUST be naked to produce sufficient power will be unable to do so clothes, but that a witch who does not believe it CAN, but that it may be less effort to practice naked anyway. This is an interesting notion as it highlights a connection between belief, and power. If you believe you are able to do something, then usually you are able to. And if you do not believe it - then you can’t. Somewhat a self-fulfilling prophecy. This got me to thinking - what would it be like to conduct the same ritual skyclad versus clothed? And when clothed is there a difference between synthetic and natural materials? What about a difference between say linen, cotton, silk, or wool within the natural category? What about man-made rayons from natural sources such as Bamboo or Modal? Would there be a difference in power raised, or energy exerted? Is there a reliable method by which we could test this theory?
Further to this discussion on working skyclad vs clothes - in my communities I have only ever worked clothed. It is common for Reclaiming witch camps to have areas which are clothing-optional; however, open ritual will usually be fully clothed or robed. When I was being taught the direction of energy and the raising of power I was taught to direct energy from my hands, and to direct excess out of my feet. Is it possible that this comes from groups who did believe in power emanating from the body, not wanting to practice skyclad, and explicitly teaching how to direct energies within and out of the body while wearing clothes? Would my experiences of the above discussed experiments change if I direct energy in the way I was taught, versus if I allowed energy to come out of all of my pores when raising energy?
“...they believed in Gods who were not all-powerful. They wished men well, they desired fertility for man and beast and crops, but to attain this they needed man’s help. Dances and other rites gave this help. These rites were based on sympathetic magic, the idea that like attracts like, and also that ‘what gave pleasure to man, gave pleasure to the Gods.’” (pp. 123)
“These dances are intoxicating, and this intoxication is the condition for producing what they call magic.” (pp. 115)
Dance appears to be the primary method by which Gardner describes the raising of power for any particular purpose. I personally like this image of the Gods - beings who are often willing to help but are not all-powerful so as to control every aspect of life - necessitating multiple deities - and who need energy, power, and support from humans in order to enact the help which has been requested.
“British traditional witches use a three degree system that is roughly comparable to the sequential roles of apprentice, journeyman, and master in the old craft guilds or bachelor, master, and doctor in modern academia.” (Judy Harrow, pp. 182)
This was a particularly interesting comment to me, as I have never thought of the 3 degrees of Gardnerian Wicca being compared to the different levels of training, or academia. This got me thinking about the different roles of Bard, Ovate, and Druid in OBOD and other modern Druidic orders.
Views on, and into the Future
“Witchcraft today is largely a case of ‘make do’.” (pp. 125)
“But I think we must say goodbye to the Witch. The cult is doomed, I am afraid, partly because of modern conditions, housing shortage, the smallness of modern families, and chiefly by education [...] good weather reports, good health services, outdoor games, bathing, nudism, the cinema, and television have largely replaced what the witch had to give.”
Gardner had very low hopes for the future of Witchcraft and Wicca. Yet here I am - 71 years after publication - a practicing witch able to read his words and see how far we have come, and how much we have changed.
“There are no witch’s supply stores, so a poor witch usually has to make or improvise her own tools; a novice is often presented with an athame, and of course in a witch-family there are often tools to be had. Old tools are always preferred, as they are supposed to have power.”
Ah Gerald - what a time to be alive. I have visited many witchcraft supply stores in my time, including in my own and neighbouring cities. Some shops contain a witchcraft section even if they are not themselves a witchcraft shop. Bookstores contain entire occult and witchcraft sections now as well. I think this bit would make him rather proud - to know how far we have come in that realm; however, in todays world of consumerism and end-stage capitalism I want to draw our attention to this quote in particular. Witch tools are just that - tools - and they do not have to be so specific. While I love myself collecting tools - Gardner points to old tools always being the preferred. Perhaps this could be a reason for us who have been in the craft a decade or more to go into our cupboards and pull out our oldest tools. Give them a polish up and use them again - they have been there waiting for you.
“But to me, the most important thing about Witchcraft Today, and Gardner’s other work, and all of our contributions to Wicca is to know that this is not where Witchcraft stops.” (Judy Harrow, pp.11)
“What Gerald Gardner might think of solitary Wicca, we cannot know. Nor can we guess his reaction to the many labels and myriad guises that Wicca wears today. He might be thrilled. He might be surprised. He might not be entirely pleased with all of these new variations, but I daresay he would be fascinated - and impressed.” (Wren Walker, pp. 174)
“We are, in this twenty-first century reality, everywhere.” (Wren Walker, pp. 174)
“Yet, despite his progressiveness, he was, of course, bound by cultural context.” (Judy Harrow, pp.181)
And now we come to the end of my critique/rant/oops over 4000 word essay on Witchcraft Today while I have some issues with it, and highly critique the racism, views on gender and sexuality, and the lack of citation or continued differentiation between what is his own theory and what he is taking from somewhere else I found reading this book incredibly enlightening. Within its pages I see the seeds of what Witchcraft is today, and I see a man who is passionate about his subject but very bound by his own cultural context. While this book would not be the first one I would recommend to a beginner witch, nor would I recommend it to an intermediate, I think it is a book that provides important historical context (e.g. around 1954 when this was published) for our religion and spiritual practice. Whether you want to admit it, or not, almost all modern witchcraft and Pagan practices stem from - or have parts which stem from - Wicca and Gerald Gardner. It is important to know where we have come from, so we know where we are going.
I will leave you with one final thought from Tara Nelsen in her contributions to this 50th anniversary edition which strikes me as even more true and needed now in our current political climate globally than it did even in 2004.
“I also hope to see less infighting. We have too much to fight for and to defend ourselves to waste the energy fighting with each other.” (Tara Nelsen, pp. 191)
- Ems /|\
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